The story of continuity and change in a country with diverse ecosystems varies from region to region. It is important to consider the microhabitats and landscapes that shape the cultures and traditions we inherit. Some regions have been occupied for many millennia, resulting in a long history with no breaks or gaps in the chronology. However, there are some examples in archaeology of sites that have been occupied for a long time but have had gaps in occupation; the infamous site of Hastinapura is a prime example of such chrono-cultural history.
There are also examples of a region with multiple sites deciphering the story of continuity and change, the classical example of this would be the sites of Mehrgarh, Nausharo and Pirak, together showcasing the evolution of culture from early farming to the Bronze Age. Therefore, it is not necessary that an individual site will have to give an entire picture of the region’s historicity; there can be multiple sites in a region that can offer you a glimpse of shifts in the cultural paradigm.
Chirand, an archaeological site in Bihar, is a combination of these two distinct examples. The site narrates a regional evolution of society from the Neolithic to the Early Historical period after which it was deserted till the Mediaeval period. But when combined with other sites on the banks of the Ganga, such as Maner, Chechar and Senuar, it provides valuable information on the over-4000-year history of the region.
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The Rising Sun of Bihar
Once called the ‘rising sun of the neolithic culture in India’ by archaeologist FR Allchin, Chirand is an archaeological site located in the Saran district of Bihar. The site was first reported after a surface study in the late 1800s— when Mediaeval structures and Buddhist sculptures were found. The initial excavations, conducted in 1962 by the Directorate of Archaeology and Museum, Bihar, lasted for seven field seasons till 1972-73.
A five-fold cultural sequence was revealed during the excavation which was broadly categorised as –
Period I – Neolithic (early food-producing period)
Period II – Chalcolithic (Copper-using society)
Period III – Northern Black Polished Ware-associated culture (linked with the rise of ancient republics)
Period IV– Historical period (from 1st century to 3rd century BCE)
Period V– Late Historical
The neolithic society at Chirand settled on the alluvial deposit of the Ganga River in circular houses made of wild reeds. A circular floor about four metres in diameter with a series of open hearths, a few post-holes near the floor and a few burnt chunks of clay with a reed impression are valuable pieces of evidence that speak volumes about neolithic settlement style and social matrix.
Bone tools, styli, tanged and socketed arrowheads, bangles of ivory and tortoise bone, and many bone ornaments from the Neolithic phase are indicative of a highly skilled society which focused on utilising animal bones in many ways. Apart from this, beads made of chalcedony, agate, jasper, marble, chert, steatite and faience—which were sources from across the subcontinent—link the settlers of Chirand to the domestic trade matrix. Material like faience must be the result of exchange with the Harappans in the west, whereas agate was probably coming from Gujarat.
The evidence of rice, wheat, barley and masoor at Chirand suggests that people, during Period I, were cultivating cereals and legumes. Fish also was part of their diet.
Such a complex society of early farmers in eastern India at around c.2400 BCE is a marker of indigenous growth of culture, which is connected to its contemporary settlements around Chirand and across the Ganga in the west.
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Evolution to copper
The inclusion of metal is a sign of evolution, both of society and of technology. Copper was the first metal which slowly penetrated the social fabric in Chirand. This brought about the onset of the Chalcolithic period.
The early dates of the Copper Age—which succeeded the early farming period and paved the way for iron—come from the western half of the subcontinent. But this may be a generalised statement because the juncture when the Neolithic ends and Chalcolithic begins might not follow a linear pattern in every microcosm. It can merge in the initial stages before paving the way for a full-fledged Copper Age, just like at Maski, Karnataka. Moreover, in some instances, they co-exist, as we have seen in the case of Burzahom and Harappa.
In the case of Chirand, both scenarios stand true. At the site, the Neolithic period slowly transitions into the Chalcolithic period. But when placing the site with its contemporary sites in the same region as Maner, the Neolithic period of Chirand co-exists with the Chalcolithic period of Maner which is dated to 2600 BCE.
The Chalcolithic period in Chirand is dated around c.2000 to 1950 BCE and covers about 5.5m thickness of the total deposit. The copper-using people lived in houses made of reeds and bamboo with mud plaster and floors made of burnt earth. Circular hearths are noted in the earliest levels of the deposit. Secondary burials were also recorded during the excavation.
Bone tools continue to make an appearance along with stone beads. A few corroded pieces of copper were excavated along with a few pear-shaped terracotta beads.
This phase slowly merges into Period III— the Iron Age.
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Towards urbanism
If copper marked the evolution of society and a technological shift in metallurgy, iron is credited with leading the society into urbanism. The Iron Age in the subcontinent is a much-debated topic. While the exact date of the introduction of iron is still debatable, its inclusion in the material culture is considered important— so much so that early scholars called the Iron Age the foundation of second urbanism in India.
At Chirand, the introduction of iron is coupled with the presence of Northern Black Polish Ware which, like iron, is a product of advanced kilning technique. Iron implements found at the site include sickles, axes, ploughshares, daggers, lances, knife blades, etc. Beads of semi-precious stones and terracotta beads are also part of the material assemblage at the site. Terracotta human and animal figures including the naga figurine are important findings. Copper antimony rods, bone arrowheads, copper-punch marked coins and cast coins were also found during this period. What is interesting is that Neolithic celts [a tool from the period] were also present in this period.
A drastic change in settlement pattern was in the building material. Baked brick structures start to appear, with mud walls and rammed floors.
Period III was followed by Period IV—from 1st century BCE to 3rd century CE—which was ruled by the Kushana dynasty. During this period big residential complexes and monastic buildings are reported. Several structural phases are noted, one of which included remnants of a monastic kitchen which yielded a terracotta torso of Hariti. An important discovery of this period was the Kushana copper coin hoard of 88 coins, and a terracotta sealing with the early Brahmi script.
Period V is the last phase which revealed that the site was deserted after 3rd century CE and reoccupied after a considerable gap during the late historical and early Mediaeval period. The periodisation is indicated by the recovery of a pot with five gold coins of the Kalachuri dynasty ruler Gangeyadeva dated c.1045 CE, and the presence of an unidentified sculpture from the Pala period.
Continuity and change
At Brahmagiri and Maski, cultures changed and the landscape evolved with time. Similarly, at Chirand, early neolithic farmers co-existed and evolved alongside the copper-using society, and at the same time distinctively showed how easily cultures change and merge at one location. From humble wattle and daub structures emerged rammed floors, community hearths, and burnt bricks, changing the settlement style which eventually became the hallmark of urbanism. The Kushana occupation that follows, is also an example of how the region, and most importantly Chirand itself, is significant – perhaps due to political reasons or maybe just due to trade.
Today, Chirand is rapidly being consumed by the Ganga, recently fresh excavations opened up a glorious chapter of the history of eastern India, leaving us waiting for more data.
An earlier version of this article wrongly identified an archaeological site as Chirand. This has been corrected.
Disha Ahluwalia is an archaeologist and junior research fellow at the Indian Council Of Historical Research. She tweets @ahluwaliadisha. Views are personal.
(Edited by Theres Sudeep)
Kab mila h?
The picture u have shared is not of chirand… It’s of historical site of telhara nalanda…!!