There is a heated debate surrounding the Mughal era in India. The BJP portrays it as a dark period, while established historians highlight the glory of the Great Mughals. Previously, the prevailing narrative praised the Mughals as empire builders who expanded their territory, shaping the map of united India under British rule. They were credited with winning wars and constructing iconic landmarks like Lal Quila and the Taj Mahal. This was the historical education most Indian children received through school textbooks.
However, since coming to power, the BJP has sought to reshape this narrative. Affiliated intellectuals and social media warriors associated with the party are challenging the traditional view and attributing the decline of the Sanatan civilisation to the Mughals. They approach this issue through the lens of Hindu-Muslim conflict, simplistically categorising anything Muslim as negative, with the Mughals conveniently fitting their criteria. Conversely, historians strive to maintain a balanced perspective on history.
The question that neither side has addressed so far is this: what was happening in Europe and the US when the Mughals were ruling large parts of India, between 1526 and 1757? Our shahenshahs, kings, and nawabs were preoccupied with consolidating their power, fighting battles, and constructing magnificent palaces, forts, and mausoleums. But there was no big scientific leap in the Mughal era.
In sharp contrast, Europe experienced seismic shifts during the same period. The Renaissance, Scientific Revolution, and Enlightenment reshaped the continent, heralding unprecedented advancements in the natural sciences, technology, political thought, and philosophy. The advent of the printing press in the 15th century democratised knowledge, fostering literacy, and stimulating intellectual and scientific exchanges. The Reformation and the rise of humanism encouraged critical thinking and promoted empirical methods of inquiry. Regrettably, the Mughal Empire, while artistically vibrant, did not witness a similar scientific revolution.
Much of what we know as Indian indigenous science is located in ancient times, not the medieval period. India’s biggest social revolution of that time, the Bhakti era, did not lead naturally to an age of enquiry. The Mughal period came after the Bhakti poets and saints who questioned religious orthodoxy. But they did not build on it by taking it to an Indian version of Enlightenment.
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Europe’s achievements
Here are some notable European inventions and scientific advancements that took place between 1526 and 1757, coinciding with the “great” Mughal rule in India.
Heliocentric model (16th century): Nicolaus Copernicus proposed the heliocentric model of the solar system, challenging the prevailing geocentric view. His work, “On the Revolutions of the Heavenly Spheres,” laid the foundation for modern astronomy and our understanding of the universe.
Microscope (late 16th century): The microscope, often credited to the Dutch scientist Antonie van Leeuwenhoek, enabled the observation of tiny organisms and structures that were previously invisible to the naked eye. This invention laid the foundation for the field of microbiology and greatly advanced our knowledge of the microscopic world.
Telescope (1609): The invention of the telescope is attributed to the Dutch mathematician and astronomer Hans Lippershey. In 1609, Italian physicist and astronomer Galileo became the first person to point a telescope skyward, allowing for detailed exploration of celestial bodies and contributing to advancements in our understanding of the cosmos.
Blood circulation (1628): The English physician William Harvey published his work “De Motu Cordis” (On the Motion of the Heart), in which he described the circulation of blood throughout the body. This ground-breaking discovery revolutionised the understanding of the cardiovascular system and laid the foundation for modern physiology.
Barometer (1643): Evangelista Torricelli invented the barometer, a device used to measure atmospheric pressure. The barometer played a crucial role in meteorology, leading to advancements in weather prediction and the understanding of atmospheric phenomena.
Steam Pump (1698): The steam pump, also known as the atmospheric engine, was developed by Thomas Savery. It was one of the early steam-powered devices that used steam pressure to pump water. It paved the way for the development of more advanced steam technology.
Quinine for malaria treatment: During the 17th century, the medicinal properties of quinine, derived from the bark of the Cinchona tree, were recognised for their effectiveness against malaria. Quinine became a crucial treatment for malaria, and its discovery had a profound impact on public health and the treatment of this widespread disease.
Calculus (late 17th century): Calculus, a branch of mathematics, was independently developed by Isaac Newton and Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz. This mathematical tool provided a framework for understanding and analysing continuous change, making significant contributions to physics, engineering, and mathematics.
Mercury thermometer (1714): Credited to the Polish-German physicist Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit, the mercury thermometer was a significant advancement in temperature measurement. It contributed to the diagnosis and monitoring of illnesses, as well as advancements in scientific research.
Now, let us venture into the tougher part. Why did the Great Mughals, despite controlling vast empires and comparatively stable rule, fail, while small and tiny European nation-states succeeded in the advancement of science and knowledge?
Also read: Modi govt erasing more than just Mughals from textbooks. It’s also deleting agency of Indians
Lack of scientific enquiry
Sociologist Max Weber theorised that the lack of scientific progress in India could be linked to the underlying religious and social framework, which did not encourage the rational, systematic thinking required for scientific innovation and technological advancement. These factors were key contributors to the progress seen in Europe during the same period. Weber postulated that the Protestant ethic, particularly in its Calvinist form, encouraged a type of rationality conducive to the development of capitalism. The Calvinist belief in predestination led to the idea that worldly success could indicate one’s salvation in the afterlife. Consequently, this led to a kind of asceticism directed towards economic activity, where work became a duty and accumulating wealth was seen as a sign of God’s favour. However, this wealth was not to be used for hedonistic purposes.
In contrast, Weber argued that Indian religions, especially Hinduism, did not foster the same asceticism towards economic activity. According to Weber, Hindu society was stratified into various castes, with each caste defined by birth and having its own duties (dharma). This system did not encourage economic ambition or social mobility, both of which are integral to capitalism.
Weber also noted that Hindu beliefs, such as the law of karma and the cycle of rebirth, did not incentivise the kind of rational economic activity that capitalism requires. The focus was instead on fulfilling one’s caste duties and attaining spiritual liberation (moksha) through renunciation of the world, which did not involve economic prosperity or material wealth.
While the Mughal Empire brought Islam to the forefront in India, it did not fundamentally alter the social and religious structure of Indian society. The caste system remained in place, and economic activities were largely controlled by the ruling elite. The Mughals ruled India with the support of the existing ruling elites. Unlike in Europe, where the Protestant Reformation encouraged individual interpretation of religious texts and inadvertently promoted scientific enquiry, the Mughal Empire, although open to various influences, did not encourage a similar kind of enquiry and rationalism.
The Mughal Empire had a different structure from Europe. It was a centralised empire with a strong monarchical rule, whereas Europe during this period was fragmented into many smaller states, each competing with one another. This competition often drove scientific and technological innovation. The Mughals spent significant resources on military expansions, which might have hindered the development of a middle class. Additionally, the harsh and sometimes brutal methods of collecting land revenue may have contributed to the absence of a middle class and the consequent setback in scientific progress.
Another point to note is that the Mughals did not follow the model of Sher Shah Suri, who ruled over India from 1540 to 1545. Suri built a road from Kolkata to Peshawar, but the Mughals failed to construct a road to the south, even for the transportation of their military equipment. Their focus was primarily on building their own houses, forts, and tombs.
Europe benefited from a series of technological transfers both from within the continent and from other cultures, including China and the Islamic world, which significantly contributed to their scientific advancement. The Mughals, on the other hand, did not provide the same level of progress and failed India.
Dilip Mandal is the former managing editor of India Today Hindi Magazine, and has authored books on media and sociology. He tweets @Profdilipmandal. Views are personal.
(Edited by Prashant)