Regarded as the ‘alphabet of archaeology’, pottery is central to archaeological research across the globe. The handiwork of ancient potters—from the 7th millennium BCE to the Bronze Age—has helped further archaeological inquiry into history. Although potters are rarely given their share of credit in the public eye, for archaeologists, they are an important key to the past.
However, today there’s been a sharp decline in the number of potters as we switched gears to steel utensils and expensive glassware. Therefore, it is even more important to highlight their contribution to society and the need to protect India’s pottery traditions, from an archaeologist’s point of view.
Pottery is nothing but clay that is modelled, dried, and fired, usually with a glaze or finish, into a vessel or decorative object. Due to its nature and durability, pottery takes thousands of years to perish, which is why it has become one of the mainstays of archaeology.
Alphabet of archaeology
Ceramics are found in truckloads at any given archaeological site, making them more reliable than any other form of antiquities. But not every archaeologist adores them. Some think of ceramics as more like low-level nuclear waste—an archaeological black hole, something that merely fills up stores. Others, however, take a more serious or mystical view, believing the humblest sherd to be full of the most amazing information that only a pottery wizard or guru can decode.
In the case of India, a conscious attempt was made by Indian archaeologists in the years following Independence to make a complete chronological chart of cultures from prehistoric times to the medieval period. Understanding pottery became an important prerequisite in achieving this.
From the Neolithic period—marked by the beginning of farming—storage jars and cooking pots were a necessity. In the beginning, these vessels were made by hand and baked in a kiln. But with time, handmade pottery evolved into wheel-made, finer, and sophisticated wares which were now decorated either with painted motifs or by applying multi-coloured slip.
After this, there was no stopping the creative flair and artistry of the potters. A variety of wares was produced, which reflected regional traits and preferences. Shapes and forms of vessels were also dictated by dietary habits and ongoing trends in the market. As trade, both long-distance and internal, became a driving force of change, ideas within the potter communities were also exchanged. Potters would imitate their contemporaries, set trends, and break them too. They were also experimenting with fire, mastering the art of pyro-technology.
By the time the subcontinent entered the Bronze Age—the age of the first cities—potters were experts in pyro-technology, managing fire and temperature in the kiln along with altering the level of oxygen. If they wanted a bright terracotta shade vessel, they’d maintain a uniform level of oxygen in the kiln along with a stable temperature. If they wanted a dual-toned black and red ware, they’d invert the pot in the kiln and use the reduction technique, where the flow of oxygen is stopped in the kiln. This is true for the classical painted grey ware pottery as well, but here the levels have to be maintained in such a way that the vessel acquires a uniform slate grey colour.
Once Indian archaeologists noted typological and morphological changes across the subcontinent, they placed them in chronological order. This was an intensive exercise, done with precision. It was important to undertake this mammoth work as India needed a chronological time frame in the absence of scientific dates. In archaeology, this is called relative dating.
Relative dating and ceramic cultures are interlinked. For seven to eight decades, the practice formed the crux of Indian archaeology and archaeological research. Today, ceramic studies have taken a giant leap with the application of scientific methods. Lipid analysis and organic residue analysis are bringing us closer to the past than ever before and scientifically cementing the assertions made by early scholars.
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Chaîne opératoire
In the realm of ceramic analysis, understanding the physical features of a sherd is only the beginning of the research. To understand its creation, one needs to understand the life of a potter, their household, manufacturing techniques, the tools employed by them and their community as a whole.
In order to do this, the chaîne opératoire (operational chain) approach helps in analysing the technical processes and social acts in the step-by-step production, use, and eventual disposal of artefacts. In the context of ceramics, this means creating a framework for rebuilding and organising the technological choices—the materials, techniques, and operations—involved in the pottery production process.
Step 1: Procurement of raw material, which is the clay. In the past, potters would have a strategic spot on the river bank or lake where the clay would be perfect for their purpose. For instance, in the case of Khavda pottery of Kutch, potters get their clay from a particular lake, which is integral to the process.
Step 2: Kneading the clay and adding necessary additives such as husk. If the product is of a higher quality, the clay is sieved and kneaded with utmost care.
Step 3: Once the clay is prepared, it is thrown on the wheel where the potter shapes it into the desired form. This is mostly done by men.
Step 4: Once a pot has been shaped on the wheel, it is sun-dried for a few days before the final changes are made.
Step 5: If the shape of the vessel is not perfect, dabber and paddles are used to shape them. Otherwise, a carved shell is used to scrape off the excess clay.
Step 6: Once dried, the pot is treated with either a colour wash or a slip. It is then painted with decorative motifs. In some instances, the pot is painted without a wash or slip. Even today, natural colours like hematite and ochre are used by potters.
Step 7: Pots are sundried once again.
Step 8: The kiln is prepared. Indian archaeologists have found different types of kilns being used in the subcontinent—open air, double chamber updraft (found at Harappa and Mehrgarh), single chamber, and pit kiln. Out of these, the pit kiln is the most common type of kiln used among present-day potters in North India.
Step 9: Once the kiln has cooled down, pots are removed from it. Some are then given the finishing touches. Today, they are re-painted.
Step 10: The pots are sold in the market.
These ten steps can take some days or even a few weeks. Usually, the decoration and beautification of the pots is done by the women of the house while the laborious work is done by the men. This shows that an entire household was involved in the task of creating a pot.
This exercise helps us understand how potters worked in the past. It also helps emphasise human intervention while recording potsherds, especially since it presents an unbroken chain that connects us to the past.
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Changing times, dying art
Thousands of years after the advent of the craft, India’s pottery traditions show incredible diversity. Be it Jaipur Blue Pottery, Khavda pottery, Manipur’s Longpi pottery, or the terracotta traditions of Bishnupur in West Bengal, each region has its identity depicted in clay.
For thousands of years, the art of making terracotta wares and objects coped with the changing times, but today it is struggling to survive. On one hand, terracotta centres such as Molela in Rajasthan are holding on due to the commercialisation of their products. On the other, many local and rural potter communities and disintegrating.
From 2021 to 2023, anthropologist Alok Sharma studied the potter community of Hanumangarh district in Rajasthan—which houses the famous Harappan settlement of Kalinbangan—and found that increasing costs of raw material and competitive pressures from mass-produced goods significantly impacted the artisans’ livelihoods, compelling many to migrate in search of better economic opportunities in urban centres such as Jaipur and Bikaner.
The seasonality of pottery making is also forcing more and more potters to take up menial jobs. In such a scenario, the transfer of knowledge from one generation to another is disrupted as the youth abandon the craft.
A craft which has survived for thousands of years is on the verge of disintegration. Although terracotta wares, vessels, and bottles are making their way into society as a new-age health hack, it is not enough to sustain India’s pottery traditions.
Disha Ahluwalia is an archaeologist and junior research fellow at the Indian Council Of Historical Research. She tweets @ahluwaliadisha. Views are personal.
(Edited by Prasanna Bachchhav)